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The
'Caves of the Thousand Buddha’s
Introduction
The 'Caves of the Thousand Buddhas', or Qianfodong, are
situated at Mogao, about 25 kilometres south-east of the oasis town
of Dunhuang in Gansu province, western China, in the middle of the desert.
By the late fourth century, the area had become a busy desert crossroads
on the caravan routes of the Silk Road linking China and the West. Traders,
pilgrims and other travellers stopped at the oasis town to stock up
with provisions, pray for the journey ahead or give thanks for their
survival.
At about this time wandering monks carved the first caves into the long
cliff stretching almost 2 kilometres in length along the Daquan River.
Over the next millennium more than 1000 caves of varying sizes were
dug. Around five hundred of these were decorated as cave temples.
When the Silk Road was abandoned under the Ming dynasty (1368-1644),
oasis towns lost their importance and many were deserted. Although the
Mogao caves were not completely abandoned, by the nineteenth century
they were largely forgotten, with only a few monks staying at the site.
Unknown to them, at some point in the early eleventh century, an incredible
archive - with up to 50,000 documents, hundreds of paintings, together
with textiles and other artefacts - was sealed up in one of the caves
(Cave 17). Its entrance concealed behind a wall painting, the cave remained
hidden from sight for centuries, until 1900, when it was discovered
by Wang Yuanlu, a Daoist monk who had appointed himself abbot and guardian
of the caves.
The
Buddhist paintings
During the thousand years of artistic activity at Mogao, the style of
the wall paintings and sculptures changed, in part a reflection of the
influences that reached it along the Silk Road. The early caves show
greater Indian and Western influence, while during the Tang dynasty
(AD 618-906) the influence of the latest Chinese painting styles of
the imperial court is evident. During the tenth century, Dunhuang became
more isolated and the organisation of a local painting academy led to
mass production of paintings with a unique style.
The art also reflects the changes in religious belief and ritual at
the pilgrim site. In the early caves, jataka (1)
stories were commonly depicted. During the Tang dynasty, Pure Land Buddhism
became very popular. This promoted the Buddha Amitabha, who helped the
believer achieve rebirth in his Western Paradise, where even sinners
are permitted, sitting within closed lotus buds listening to the heavenly
sounds and the sermon of the Buddha, thereby purifying themselves.
Various Paradise paintings decorate the walls of the cave temples of
this period, each representing the realm of a different Buddha. Their
Paradises were shown in sumptuous Chinese palace settings. Simplified
versions of these buildings appear on banners depicting bodhisattvas
showing donors on their way to Paradise.
1) jataka
A collection of stories that illustrate Buddhist principles. Many concern
events in the previous incarnations of the Buddha. |
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Bodhisattva as Guide of Souls, ink and colours on a silk banner
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province, China
Five Dynasties, early 10th century AD |
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Leading the donor
to the Pure Land
The painting is inscribed with the characters yinlu pu or 'Bodhisattva
leading the Way'. It is one of several examples from Mogao of a bodhisattva
leading the beautifully clad donor figure to the Pure Land, or Paradise,
indicated by a Chinese building floating on clouds in the top left corner.
The two figures are also supported by a cloud indicating that they are
flying. The bodhisattva (2), shown much larger
than the donor, is holding a censer and a banner in his hand. The banner
is one of many of the same type found at Mogao, with a triangular headpiece
and streamers.
The woman appears to be very wealthy, with gold hairpins in her hair.
Actual examples of these were found in Chinese tombs. Her fashionably
plump figure suggests that the painting was executed in the ninth or
tenth century.
2) bodhisattva
In Mahayana Buddhism, a being who postpones nirvana (Enlightenment),
and thus Buddha-hood, in order to work to alleviate the sufferings of
other mortals.
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Paradise of Amitabha, ink and colours on silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province, China
Tang Dynasty, 9th century AD |
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Paradise of
Amitabha
Pure Land sutras, which describe the Paradises of various Buddhas, became
very popular in Dunhuang during the Tang Dynasty (618-907). The most
influential was the Western Paradise of the Buddha Amitabha. Pure Land
painting also became popular. Although the condition of this painting
is not as good as others from Dunhuang, it can be directly compared
to wall paintings there. In this painting the Buddha Amitabha, shown
larger than the other figures, is seated in front of a Chinese palace
setting surrounded by bodhisattvas and in the lower part of the painting,
subsidiary Buddha figures.
The scenes on the right show the story of King Bimbishara who was imprisoned
by his son Ajatashatru. Here the story starts with Bimbishara's sin:
he slayed a sage who was then reborn as a white hare. When Bimbishara
was later put in prison by his evil son his wife, Queen Vaidehi attempted
to save him, only to be imprisoned herself. In captivity she called
on the Buddha for help. On the left are shown the sixteen meditations
of Queen Vaidehi, starting with the meditation on the setting sun to
find the right direction to the Western Paradise.
From Dunhuang and other parts of China Pure Land painting travelled
to Japan, where with modifications it remains popular for Buddhist worship
to the present day.
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Paradise of Maitreya, ink and colours on silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province, China
Late Tang or early Five Dynasties, late 9th - early 10th century AD
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Paradise of
Maitreya
The subject of this complex painting can be identified from inscriptions
from the Mile xiasheng jing ('Sutra of Maitreya's Birth'), as the Paradise
of Maitreya, the future Buddha. At present, Maitreya is still a bodhisattva
who presides over Tusita Heaven until the time comes for his earthly
rebirth and subsequent attainment of Buddhahood.
The central figure of Maitreya sits in a courtyard with two bodhisattvas,
two disciple monks representing youth and maturity and two Guardian
Kings, Virupaksha with a sword and Vaishravana with the banner. Along
either side of the borders are two dharmapalas or Law Guardians, another
two Buddhas attended by pairs of bodhisattvas. In front of Maitreya
four musicians and a dancer perform and human and celestial beings make
floral offerings.
The scenes at the top of the painting - of merrymaking, farming and
people at worship - symbolize the peace and prosperity that Maitreya
will bring. At the bottom, the ordination rite of head-shaving is being
carried out on a couple of noble birth. Next to them, two altar tables
laden with lavish gifts stand either side of a canopied throne. This
represents the conversions which Maitreya will bring about.
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Sutras
The huge number of manuscripts found in Cave 17 reveals that Dunhuang
was a major centre of Buddhist scholarship. In medieval China, as
in Europe, monastery libraries served as important repositories of
knowledge. They consisted largely of the three categories of text
that made up the Buddhist canon, or Tripitaka (Sanskrit: 'three baskets'):
sutras (3), the abhidarma or sastra, and the
vinaya.
Sutras were translated from Sanskrit in the Chinese capital, Chang'an,
and copies distributed to monasteries throughout the empire. Great
care was taken; official translations can be recognized by their long
tabulated colophons - notes at the end of the scroll that detail the
translation and copying process.
One of the most important texts in the Dunhuang region was the Lotus
Sutra, of which over a thousand copies were found in various translations.
Other sutras found there illustrate various features characteristic
of Chinese Buddhism. The (apocryphal) Sutra of the Ten Kings, for
example, shows the incorporation of indigenous Chinese beliefs - such
as the belief in hells - into the Buddhist worldview. The Vimalikirti
Sutra was translated from Sanskrit in the third century, but the Chinese
version became much more popular, because the hero was a layman with
a family, which appealed to the Chinese, who found leaving their family
and having no children, as Buddhist monks had to do, very difficult
to reconcile with traditional Confucian values.
These and other sutras were illustrated in many forms in Dunhuang
on banners, handscrolls and wall paintings.
3) sutra
In Buddhism, sutras are the sermons of Shakyamuni, the historical
Buddha, which were transcribed in Sanskrit or Pali, languages local
to northern India, probably several centuries after his death. They
usually start with a description of where and when the Buddha was
preaching, and also contain parables designed to enlighten the listener.
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Illustration to the Fumu enzhong jing, ink and colours on silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province, China
Northern Song dynasty, late 10th century AD |
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Sutra
The Confucian ideal of filial piety in a Buddhist context
The central section of the painting is made up of scenes illustrating
the Fumu enzhong jing, an apocryphal sutra that was popular at Dunhuang
in this later period. The text in the accompanying cartouches corresponds
almost exactly to texts surviving in manuscripts found at Mogao. This
also accounts for the mountain setting behind the Buddha group, as the
beginning of the sutra is set at Mount Grdhrakuta.
The sutra describes blessings received from one's parents. On the right
a boy is shown receiving instructions from his father, and there is
a baby in the arms of his mother. The relevant text is that in the cartouche
to the left of the scene: 'Father and mother cherish and hold him making
gentle sounds; he smiles but cannot yet speak. When he is hungry and
needs to eat, were it not for his mother he would not be given suck.'
Another scene (to the top on the far left) illustrates how old parents
are abandoned after their son marries. Filial piety was one of the most
important Confucian virtues, and this painting illustrates that it remained
important in Chinese Buddhism.
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Monks
Though Dunhuang was geographically isolated, it was part of a large
network of monasteries under official Chinese control during the Tang
Dynasty (AD 618-906). The monastery complex included the caves - both
undecorated cells used as living quarters and the larger devotional
temples - and a series of buildings on the valley floor, including
prayer halls, refectories and living quarters for the abbot and monks.
While many of the scrolls found at Dunhuang were made in the Chinese
capital, others were commissioned and made locally by the monks, for
example as a prayer for an ill person, or on the death of a relative.
Other monks passed through Dunhuang, at first as Buddhism spread eastward
from India into central Asia and China, and later in pilgrimages back
to Buddha's birthplace. One of the most famous was Xuanzang, who returned
to the Chinese capital Chang'an (today Xi'an) from India in AD 645
to spend a lifetime translating the sutras that he had brought back,
with the help of a large team of scholars and monks. The famous Wild
Goose Pagoda, still standing today, was built next to the their now
destroyed monastery to house these sacred scriptures.
Among the earliest portraits in East Asia were those of famous or
important monks. Cave 17 was originally a memorial chapel dedicated
to Hongbian, chief monk of the Dunhuang region in the mid-ninth century.
His statue was placed in front of a mural showing his attendants,
rosary and bag, and was later removed to make place for the manuscripts
and paintings. It has since been replaced in its original setting
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Monk seated in meditation, ink and colours on paper
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province, China
Tang Dynasty, late 9th - early 10th century AD
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The beginnings
of portraiture in the East
The cave where the paintings were found sealed up at Mogao, known as
Cave 17, was originally built as a memorial chapel for Hongbian, a monk
who was active there in the ninth century. His statue was removed when
the bundles of silk paintings were put into the cave, but this has now
been returned to its original place. The statue shows Hongbian seated
with his hands on his lap, in a similar fashion to the monk shown in
this sketch, and with his belongings hanging on the tree behind. A monk
was only allowed to have a begging bowl or bag and a rosary, a prayer
mat like the one that this monk sits on, and a vase for water. His shoes
are neatly placed in front of the mat.
The depiction of senior monks and sages played an important part in
the development of portrait painting and sculpture in China and East
Asia.
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Travelling monk, ink and colours on paper
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province, China
Five Dynasties or Northern Song Dynasty, 10th century AD
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On the Silk
Road
This painting shows a travelling monk, wearing a hat, holding a fan
and accompanied by a tiger. He has a heavy load of sutras on his back.
Various objects are hanging from his long staff. Two highly finished
paintings in the Musée Guimet, Paris, show the same iconography
and several more have also survived on paper in a similar sketchy style
to this example. It seems that reliquaries may have been hung from the
monk's staff. The little Buddha supported by a cloud may be there to
protect him, and has been identified as Prabhutaratna (a Buddha of the
past).
These paintings have created much interest not least because of the
many monks who travelled on the Silk Road on their way to India or to
other holy centres. The most famous Chinese monk, Xuanzang, came back
with many sutras from India in the seventh century, which he then translated
in the Chinese capital Chang'an. Another explanation for the sutras
on the monk's back has been that the scrolls contained text and pictures
for teaching. Itinerant monks would travel from one town to the next
and expound sutras to those who gathered around them, often illustrating
their narrative with pictures.
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Patrons
The decoration of each cave-temple was usually commissioned by an
individual (whether an official, monk, governor or merchant, for example)
and dedicated to their families and deceased relatives. However, some
were commissioned by groups of lay individuals, or a religious society.
The responsibility for the cave's upkeep was often passed on to the
patron's descendants, and it could stay in the same family for generations.
The caves were excavated by a team of workmen, who chiselled out the
ceiling and walls, which were then plastered with clay tempered with
chopped straw and finished with a thin layer of plaster. The paintings
would have already been commissioned, and were executed by skilled
workmen under the direction of a senior Buddhist monk. Sculptures
made of stucco around a wooden armature were also an integral part
of the decoration.
Patrons and their portraits played an increasingly important part
as time passed. At first they were depicted as much smaller than the
main figures in the composition and in a subordinate position to the
side. However, they gradually increased in size, until by the tenth
century they occupied a large proportion of the lowest register of
the paintings. In some paintings they are shown as part of the main
composition and in the same scale as the holy figures in the paintings.
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Kshitigarbha as Lord of the Six Ways, ink and colours on silk
From Cave 17, Mogao, near Dunhuang, Gansu province, China
Northern Song Dynasty, dated 4th year of Jianlong (AD 963)
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Made for 'the disciple of pure
faith Kang Qingnu'
In the lower section of the painting are donor figures, wearing fashionable
clothes, the women with typical tenth-century hair styles decorated
with hairpins and flowers. According to the inscription, the donor wished
to avoid all bad forms of rebirth: 'The maker of this painting was the
disciple of pure faith, Kang Qingnu. His body lodges in the House of
Fire and he fears to fall in the Five Evil Ways. Fortune and disaster
are inconstant; his heart longs to be among the emancipated...'. Kshitigarbha
is depicted and invoked here as he had vowed to rescue souls even from
the regions of hell, and this offers hope to the donor and his family.
The main part of the painting shows the bodhisattva Kshitigarbha wearing
a hood and seated on a lotus behind an altar accompanied by two worshipping
bodhisattvas. On the three lines on each side of his halo are depicted
'The Six Ways of Life': gods, animals and hell (top left) and humans,
ashuras (mythical four-armed figures) and hungry ghosts (right).
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