Amitayus Buddha

China Northern Wei, 9th year of T'ai-he (485)
Gilt-bronze H. 24cm

Sakyamuni Buddha

China Northern Ch'i, 3rd year of Wu-p'ing (570)
Gilt-bronze H. 24cm

Triad with Kuanyin

China Sui dynasty(AD581-617)
Gilt-bronze H. 18cm

Kuanyin

China (Yün-nan province) Ta-li kingdom(AD938-1254)
Gilt-bronze H. 53cm

Kuan-yin

China Ming dynasty
Gilt-bronze
H. 19.8cm

Standing Buddha

Northwest India 8th-9th century
Brass
H. 23.7cm

Standing Uma-Mahesvara: Shiva, consort

Parvati, and bull Nandi
Northwest India 12th century
Bronze H. 16.8cm

Jina Bahubali, in the body-abandonment pose

Southeast India 14th century
Gilt-bronze
H. 13.6cm

Seated Shakyamuni

Sir Lanka 18th century
Gilt-bronze with inlaid sliver
H. 17.1cm

Standing Vishnu

Cambodia or Thailand ca. 12th-13th century
Gilt Bronze H. 35.2cm

Plaque with triad of standing Buddha with attendants

Thailand ca. 8th-10th century
Gold repoussé H: 8.5cm, W: 11.0 cm

Seated Buddha

Indonesia(Java) 10th century
Bronze
H. 29.5cm

Indra in crucifixion pose

Nepal 17th century
Gilt-bronze
H. 100.5cm

Seated Great Sage of Bon religion, probably Drenpa Namkha

Tibet 18th century
Silver alloy
H. 16.6cm

Standing Buddha of Healing

Korea Three Kingdoms period
Gilt-bronze
H. 17.7cm

Standing bodhisattva

Korea Unified Silla dynasty
Gilt Bronze H. 23.0cm

Standing Buddha

Japan Hakuho period
Gilt Bronze H. 30.8cm

Buddhist sculptures

Introduction
Asia has witnessed the rise and fall of an untold number of civilizations. As innumerable cultures have formed, they have diffused across national boundaries, creating an unique synthesis of cultures. This blend has been deeply impressed by Buddhism, which, because of its extensive reach over both land and time, plays a key role in the cultural development of Asia.
Buddhism appeared during the fifth century B.C. in northern India. During the rule of the third century B.C. Mauryan dynasty emperor Asoka, Buddhism was gradually disseminated to other countries, spreading east to Sri Lanka, Burma, Cambodia, Thailand, and Indonesia, and north to China, Korea, and Japan. In the process of moving across cultures, Buddhism encountered diverse periods, lands, and people, converging and fusing together to create distinctly new forms and styles.

Buddhist bronze sculpture has been one of the most important means of transmitting Buddhism; although diminutive in scale, much could be gleaned from their small size. These objects, which both preserve the majesty of Buddhist art and represent the diversity of Asia, are manifestations of the arts and beliefs of each country. The early development of bronze casting techniques in China, established early on in China’s history, laid the foundation for and influenced the imagery of Buddhist sculpture.

Buddhist Sculpture
Buddhism originated in India, and was disseminated through the various countries of Asia in a variety of methods: passed along by travelers such as monks and merchants; by way of privately transcribed scriptures and images which were imitated and copied; and through craftsmen, who demonstrated and expounded upon Buddhist sutras. Although the path of transmission did not leave a clear and definite path, there is a clear distinction between the ways in which Buddhism was expressed in India, Southeast Asia and China, and Japan and Korea. The first group, India and Southeast Asia, were heavily influenced by India, while the second group of China, Japan and Korea were closely allied to China and therefore, as Buddhism grew, took on the unique characteristics of their respective countries.

India, Pakistan, and Kashmir
The Kushan dynasty, which lasted from the 1st c. to 320 A.D., was a time of great prosperity for India, which included what today is Pakistan and Afghanistan. Ruling over this area was the great King Kanishka (c. 78-144), who made Buddhism the official religion of India. In time a center for art was created at Gandhara, in northern India, and Mathura, which was part of southern India. After the fourth century, the Gupta dynasty (319-7th c.) gained power in central India, and the position of Gandhara diminished, but in Pakistan's Swat Valley, the arts still retained the particular characteristics of early sculpture: a healthy, rounded body, the shoulders draped with the same one shouldered robe worn by monks that was rendered as heavy and thick, falling in dense but neat swags of U-shaped folds. Other features included a seat of a generously sized lotus pedestal and a hood covering the head, which, combined with those above, were typical features of Swat Valley art.
Situated in the Himalayas, Kashmir's geographical location in the northwestern part of India meant that it was inevitable that Kashmir would become strongly shaped by Gandharan art. After the Gupta period, the art of Kashmir combined the stimulus from Gandhara with that of the Gupta dynasty, resulting in sculptures that had perfectly round faces, plump bodies, and light, clinging clothing that delineated the body. The overall effect was soft and naturalistic.
Around about 750 A.D. to the end of the twelfth century, two kingdoms in succession, the Pala kingdom in eastern India, followed by the Sena kingdom, established a strong nation. Buddhism was highly esteemed, and Esoteric Buddhism flourished. Eastern India used the Gupta period as a foundation for its sculpture, creating a broad-shouldered, slim-waisted body. The robe was executed like thin gauze, though the folds were more orderly and stiff. Unlike the soft beauty that characterizes Gupta art, the art that was created by this area is far more abstract and exaggerated in style and form.

Nepal and Tibet
During the Licchavi period (300-879), the eastern Indian belief Vajrayana Buddhism became popular in Nepal. Vajrayana Buddhist art brought with it, in particular, a veneration of the god Tara, which represented an inheritance from the Indian religion appreciation of female spirits that symbolized the abundance and productivity of mother earth. Stylistically, sculpture followed the influence of Indian Sarnath and Gupta art, creating sculptures that were full-bosomed and wide-hipped, with rounded and soft bodies adorned in diaphanous clothing that clung to the contours. With hair that was covered with a decorative cap, the head was set in a drooping pose, nodding with approval, and fashioned with a high and straight nose. Elaborate, finely detailed decorative costume sets apart the artistic style of Nepal.
The Newar Samvat era began in 879, at which point Nepal was still heavily influenced by India. With the end of the 10th century the style of Pala pointed to a new direction, in which the ensemble included a cap over the hair, folded into a decorative pattern of flowers, a pleated skirt, bracelets and earrings, with jeweled inlay decoration, while the facial features of the bodhisattva became closely related to that of the ruler. After craftsmen absorbed and fused disparate styles, the Nepalese rendering of the human form from Pala style by more generous proportions and an air of harmony. The Malla kingdom (1200-1482) was founded during the 13th century, concurrent with the entrance of Islam into northern India. As India's indigenous religion, Buddhism, was replaced by another, Nepal's native styles and forms became ever more distinctive. The 13th century was the peak of the arts of the Newar Samvat, in which exceptional Buddhist art was cast in lithe and graceful forms, with balanced and symmetrical proportions, and exquisitely rendered faces, creating elegant and refined sculpture.
Cast images during the 15th century were still more ornate and bodies were even more exaggerated. At the same time, wrathful images and double-body sculptures increased. The Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, and Patan kingdoms period (1482-1769) emphasized intricate decoration and detail as well as pedestals and nimbuses, neglecting the inner spirit of religious images. Buddhism flourished after the three kingdoms period and the following Shah period (1769 to present), but cast sculptures were no longer made solely for religious purposes, and the quality of the casting declined.
During the reign of Langdarma, believers in Buddhism were persecuted (838-842). But during the 10th century Buddhism began to come to the forefront again, and during this time the Ngingma, Kagyu, and Sakya sects were founded, as well as the Gelupga sect, begun by the 14th century ruler Tsungkhapa (1357-1419). The Fifth Dalai Lama (1617-1682) exercised power over the official religion, and after the 10th century the Tibetan state was theocratic, headed by the Dalai Lama (1642-present).
This later period of cast sculpture is divided into three periods: before the 14th century Tibet imitated India and Nepal. From the 15th century to the 17th century a more regional style developed, which had a plainer, almost crude quality, but was full of human vitality. From this time Anuttara Yogatantra art, a form of Esoteric Buddhism, expanded rapidly. The creation of double-bodied or wrathful sculptures, with an atmosphere of fear and dread, became characteristic of the Tibetan style. After the 18th century was the period of the entrance of Chinese culture. The cast sculpture found in the Nei-wu-fu (Department of Internal Affairs) of the Ch'ing imperial court borrowed the formality of Tibetan images, but interpreted them in an even tidier, constrained fashion with highly wrought gilt-bronze. This style was eventually conveyed back to Tibet, where it was enthusiastically accepted, influencing the style of Tibetan sculpture.

Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia
Outside of India, Sri Lanka was one of the first countries to accept Buddhism. Because of its geographical position, Sri Lanka played a crucial role in Southeast Asia's understanding of Buddhism. Theravadan belief became the main form of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Stylistically, Sri Lanka was influenced by Amaravati, modeling the body as large and sturdy, robe thin with folds of the clothing delicately rendered in thin, even layers, eyes half-shut, and face contemplative, benevolent and dignified. After the 13th century Buddhism was the sole religion left on the highlands of this small country. At this time, the pose became stiffer and more awkward, with the folds of the robe falling in waves like ripples on water.

The seventh to the tenth centuries were the golden age of Indonesian Buddhist art. During the eighth century Shailendra dynasty, and the mid-ninth century Airlangga, which arose from Java, Mahayana and Esoteric Buddhism came to the forefront, influencing southern and central Thailand. Related to the style of Sarnath, the sculptures of Buddha are cast with expressions of tranquility and auspiciousness, dressed in thin fabric that outlines the body, although the lotus pedestal and back are more akin to the style of Pala. The center of power moved gradually during the mid-ninth century to Sumatra. In the year 930 the center of government moved east, beginning the east Javanese period style (930-15th c.), which succeeded the previous period. Esoteric Buddhism and local Indian religion, especially the belief in Shiva, became commingled, forming an unique synthesis.
For Cambodia, it was during the Angkor dynasty that Hinduism and Buddhism became integrated with local culture. The ninth to the 12th century was the most glorious period for this union of religions. The 12th century Khmer Rouge portrayal of a seated bodhisattva included a precious crown atop the head, a necklace of jewels draped over the body, and otherwise in attire reminiscent of the Khmer Rouge king. It was, in fact, an image of religious and political authority joined. The Buddha was square-faced, with a broad forehead, quivering eyelids, wide mouth, and thick lips, characteristic of the physiognomy of the Khmer Rouge people. Incised lines were used to emphasize the outlines of the features. Wide-shouldered, full-chested, the body was ripe and fertile, with the decoration of the clothing scored in fine and delicate lines to establish without a doubt its inimitable visage.
Buddhism became the state religion of Thailand, but a unified kingdom was not established until the middle of the 13th century, with the advent of the Sukmodaya kingdom (-1438). Tied closely to Sri Lankan Buddhism, Thai Buddhism flourished. The faces of sculptures are fine and elegant, the robes draped in graceful undulating folds, creating a rhythmic effect. After absorbing the main characteristics of Pala art, Thai art began to develop their own distinguishing markers. After the 16th century, the garments of Buddhist sculpture began to be modeled like the resplendent clothing of a ruler, and after Bangkok was established in 1782, the art became yet more gorgeous and ornate. To this day a particular fondness for elaborate ornament continues.

China
Although Buddhism came to China by way of India, brought by a number of several monks and movements that suggests an unbroken path of transmission, the religion that eventually became established in China was an entirely different system of thought. Northern China during the second half of the fourth century was heavily in debt to the style of Gandhara, but by the sixth century, during the Northern Wei dynasty, there were already obvious distinctions between the artistic style of China and India. Chinese faces were rendered as rounded squares, with eyes finely carved in arcs, wide noses, and full cheeks. The modified style of casting included Buddhist sculpture dressed in Chinese-style robes, which were draped in flat layers, evenly and precisely arrayed at the front of a pedestal. It was this Northern Wei manner of handling sculpture that, in following the path taken by the spread of Buddhism, influenced the sculpture of Japan and Korea.
The fashions of the T'ang dynasty predominated throughout East Asia, creating sculptures that had rounded and fertile bodies with plump and solemn faces. Sculptures of bodhisattva were cast with an air of grace, as well as slim waists and broad shoulders, draped in floating robes that seemed to be caught in movement, a style that was also copied by Korea and Japan. In this same period Pure Land Buddhism was in vogue, generating a taste for bronze Buddhist sculpture that was displayed in groups, imitating Pure Land Buddhism's conception of miniature worlds. After the Sung dynasty, Buddhism in China became ever more secular, with representations of bodhisattvas in the form of young women, depicted as kind and warm, with tenderness marking the features. A shortening of the distance between Buddhism and people occurred during the Ming dynasty. At the same time, the understanding of Buddhism's precepts—good and evil, cause and effect—became simplified and was manifested in sculpture as stiffer, less realistic depictions which lacked strength or vitality.

Korea
From the first century B.C. to 668, the peninsula of Korea was divided amongst three powers: the Koguryô, Paekche, and Silla kingdoms. These kingdoms were firmly established over the land during the second half of the fourth century, but of the three, the Koguryô grew the fastest, defeating at the beginning of the fifth century both the Paekche and Silla kingdoms, founding a strong state. The establishment of foreign relations by the Koguryô in the sixth century with the Chinese Northern Wei dynasty and one of the Southern Dynasties (420-589), the Southern Liang, meant that the Koguryô, for the first half of the sixth century, was directly influenced by the Northern Wei, Eastern Wei, and Southern Liang styles, which eventually spread to the Paekche kingdom. At the start of the seventh century the Koguryô kingdom began to decline while the power of the Paekche and Silla gradually increased. Above all, the Silla kingdom enlarged quickly until it had unified the entire peninsula. From the end of the sixth century to the beginning of the seventh century, the style of China's Northern Qi and Northern Zhou styles predominated in Korea, including a preference for tube-shaped bodies that replaced the Eastern Wei's distinctively flat planes.
During the Unified Silla Dynasty (668-935), a strong bond existed between the Silla and the T'ang dynasty of China. From the seventh to the end of the eighth century, the styles of the T'ang dynasty cities Ch'ang-an and Lo-yang was reflected in the arts of Korea, modeling and casting Buddhist sculptures with round faces, cylindrical bodies, neat and orderly clothing that was sculpted in simple curved arcs. The end of the Silla dynasty was followed by the Koryô dynasty (918-1392), during which Chan Buddhism became the mainstream religion and the production of images decreased. From the middle of the 10th century the Koryô dynasty became interested in reviving old styles, imitating and consolidating the vibrant Silla dynasty style, although their representations were more static. Though the beginning of the eleventh century found a Korea that was heavily influenced by the casting styles of the Liao and Sung dynasty, the thirteenth-century invasion of Korea by the Mongols replaced neo-Confucianism as the central philosophy of the Koryô dynasty, and consequently sculpture reflected the neo-Confucian ethic. Koryô dynasty arts preferred celadon wares and literati painting and when painting became the main form of transmission for Buddhist arts, sculpture went out of fashion.

Japan
Buddhism has played an integral role in the development of Japanese culture. The introduction of Buddhism to Japan was propelled by both the upper and ruling classes, creating between Buddhist temples and the emperor an intimate relationship that was extremely close-knit. During the Heian period (782-1185), when the aristocratic class was composed of intelligentsia and government officials, the ideology of Buddhism had already permeated the outlook of those in power. In order to concretely demonstrate their pursuit of pure and noble thought, those of the aristocratic class built private temples.
The Asuka period (538-645) and the Hakuho period (645-710) produced sculpture that was stylistically similar to that of the Korean Silla and Paekche kingdoms. The Nara period (645-782) took as its model Chinese T'ang dynasty culture, but it was not until the Heian period (782-1185), when the culture of the aristocracy reached its peak and the country looked inward for self-reflection, did court culture foster and mature into a native Japanese culture. Buddhism was not only the object of contemplation but also a real part of daily existence. Concerning itself only with present life, believers wanted also to become in their present lives Buddhas, immediately ridding themselves of everyday difficulties. At the same time Buddhism melded with native religion, Shinto, and this fusion allowed the already popular Shinto religious spirits to be introduced into esoteric Buddhism, attracting even more followers and producing Buddhist altars in which Shinto spirits were placed alongside, performing a protective function.
The late Heian dynasty was also called the Fujiwara period (897-1185) and was the zenith of aristocratic culture. Buddhism and Shinto became equally integrated into daily life. Practices of this period included a combination of beliefs in the Lotus Sutra, Pure Land of Amitabha, and Dharma-Ending Age, which became deeply rooted in the people's beliefs, leading to the burial of sutras and other objects in tumuli in preparation for Maitreya's arrival, as well as the construction of temples to ensure the individual's reaching the Pure Land. A revival of the style of the Nara period marked the early part of the Kamakura period (1185-1333), manifesting itself in the prominent use of exaggerated expressions and fierce emotions, creating realist depictions that were dynamic and vital. After Chan Buddhism came to the forefront, the twentieth century saw the development of paintings as the main form of transmission, and though the output of cast sculpture did not plummet, it did decrease and become, both in quantity and quality, gradually weaker.

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