China:
Dawn of a Golden Age, 200–750 AD
Fall of an
Empire
The Han empire (206 B.C.–A.D. 220) at its height rivaled that of Rome
in the extent of its territories, the number of inhabitants, and its
power over neighboring states. In the late second and third century,
however, as imperial power waned, control of the country moved into
the hands of powerful landowners who had absolute dominion over their
estates. Watchtowers, such as that represented by this spectacular
architectural model, were erected to help protect the inhabitants
of such estates from both neighboring threats and those posed by nomads
who were moving into China and themselves gaining control of various
regions. The building seen here rises to an impressive height within
a walled courtyard secured by a heavy gate. Shields, crossbows, alarms,
gongs, and watchmen appear on its multiple floors. The tower's grand
scale, complex structure, and formidable defense system illustrate
the staggering power and wealth of the gentry class in the third century.
The Coming of the Xianbei and Other Nomads
The nomads that roamed the northeastern and northwestern borders feature
prominently in early Chinese history and often constituted a threat
to the established order of the Han empire. Several such groups established
polities in northern China after the fall of the Han in the early
third century. The Xianbei, a nomadic people with roots in northern
Mongolia, were among the most prominent of these groups. One branch,
known as the Murong Xianbei, sporadically controlled parts of northeastern
China in the third and fourth centuries. Another, the Tuoba Xianbei,
ruled as the Northern Wei dynasty (386–534) in the north, where it
established a large empire.
For fifty years, the Tuoba capital at Pingcheng (present-day Datong)
in Shanxi Province was the center of power, culture, and riches in
North China. In addition to pottery figures recording the appearance
and amusements of this nomadic group, tombs from the era have also
yielded a wide-ranging variety of luxury goods, including glass bowls
of Roman or Persian origin, alongside metalwork displaying Hellenistic,
Persian, and Indian forms and motifs. Use of funerary sculptures depicting
a wide array of people and animals reflects the adoption by the Xianbei
of Chinese burial practices. Both the groom and the horse are handmade,
as opposed to molded, and are painted in shades of white, red, and
black. The groom's hat and tunic are standard items of Xianbei clothing
and can often be seen in funerary sculptures.
The Silk Road
First used in the late nineteenth century, "Silk Road" designates
the ancient land routes that connected the Mediterranean world, the
Middle East, and parts of northern India, Central Asia, and China.
Although trade routes had long existed, the flowering of the Silk
Road can be traced to the rise and expansion of two great empires—Rome
in the west and Han China (206 B.C.–A.D. 220) in the east—which provided
the peace and stability to link existing routes into one great road,
separated into northern and southern branches by the Taklamakan Desert.
Travel along the Silk Road, which was always perilous, included traversing
towering mountains and grasslands as well as deserts. Merchants traveled
part way, meeting their counterparts to exchange such luxury goods
as glass, metalwork, spices, fragrances, and textiles. Silk served
as both a luxury good and a form of money, and the term Silk Road
reflects the importance awarded this fabric in the international trade
that united much of the world for centuries.
Textiles, such as this fragment, have been preserved in some number
in the Turfan region due to its dry climate. Derived from Iranian
traditions, pearl roundels were popular in the Tang period and are
found on textiles, sculpture, and decorative arts. Paired birds also
reflect Iranian taste. Some of the birds wear scarves, and some do
not, indicating that the pattern repeats only horizontally (the weft
direction) but not vertically (the warp direction). Characteristic
of Iranian weaving, this patterning method spread east along the Silk
Road into China.
North and
South: late 5th–late 6th century
Politically the sixth century was a complicated period. Two dynasties,
the Liang (502–557) and the Chen (557–589) controlled the south. In
the north, the powerful Northern Wei empire flourished briefly in
a new capital, Luoyang, established in 494 in the center of China.
By 534 internecine strife between the Xianbei at the court and their
more traditional brethren posted in military centers led to the destruction
of Luoyang and the division of the north into a western half ruled
by the Western Wei (535–556) and the Northern Zhou (557–581) and an
eastern half ruled by the Eastern Wei (534–550) and the Northern Qi
(550–557).
The construction of the imperial temple Yongningsi (Eternal Peace),
built in 516–17 by order of the Dowager Empress Ling, was one of the
most important achievements of the early sixth century. Although the
temple was destroyed by fire during the devastation of Luoyang, historical
records indicate that the pagoda was one of the wonders of Buddhist
Asia. It towered close to five hundred feet and was decorated with
gold and semiprecious jewels.
These terracotta figures, both flat on one side, were found during
excavation of the site between 1979 and 1994. They are thought to
have been attached to the inner walls of the pagoda and may have been
part of a retinue of worshipers and Buddhist deities. The traditional
Chinese approach to form in the plastic arts, particularly in the
representation of humans, concentrated on intimations of life and
movement, with summary treatment of details, and emphasized a frontal
view. These fully three-dimensional figures are thus a radical departure,
a change perhaps attributable to the presence of large numbers of
western craftsmen in Luoyang. The move of many such craftsmen to the
Eastern Wei–Northern Qi realm helps to explain the strong western
influence found in sculptures and ceramics there. Foreign influence,
probably from maritime trade, is also found in South China, which
preserved artistic traditions and techniques from the Han dynasty
that were not in use in the north.
Reunification:
late 6th–8th century
In 577, the economically weaker but militarily tougher Northern Zhou
conquered the Northern Qi. In 581, it was in turn taken over by one
of its military lords, Yang Jian, who as Emperor Wendi (r. 581–604)
established the Sui dynasty (581–618) and went on to unify all of
China. In 618, Li Yuan, who ruled as Emperor Gaozu (r. 618–26), took
over the empire from the Sui and founded the Tang dynasty, which expanded
the reach of the empire well into Central Asia.
In government and military institutions the Sui and Tang followed
in the main the Northern Zhou model, but in material culture the Northern
Qi provided the major component. It is not surprising that an appreciation
and adaptation of foreign luxury goods, particularly metalwork, clothing
styles, and even makeup, marked the culture of the Tang dynasty, which,
particularly from the mid-seventh to the mid-eighth century, is considered
one of the great periods in Chinese history.
The bright, splashed glazes covering the forms of the camel and musicians
exemplify the well-known sancai, or three-color, glaze of the Tang
period, which has long been renowned for its pottery sculptures and
paintings of horses. The sculpture is from the tomb of Xianyu Tianghui
(660–723), an official who achieved high military rank in the mid-eighth
century, a time when the music and performing arts flourished. Music
in the early Tang came from every part of Asia, but the most popular
type was from Kucha in Central Asia. The long tunics, cloth hats,
and facial hair of the figures riding on top of the camel indicate
their foreign origin. The short-necked lute or pipa held by one of
the seated figures is a Central Asian instrument introduced to China
in the second century. It has a shallow pear-shaped body and four
silk strings, which run from a fastener on the belly to the turning
pegs at the sides. By the eighth century, use of this instrument had
spread to Korea, Japan, and, possibly, Vietnam.